Best training for VO2max: methods ranked by evidence

There is no single magic workout, but the research is clear about which kinds of training move VO2max the most. This guide ranks the main methods by the quality of the evidence, explains who each one suits, and ends with a decision table. If you want individual sessions, see 10 VO2max workouts; for the broader debate, see HIIT vs steady cardio.

Best training for VO2max: the short answer

The best way to increase VO2max is to spend several minutes per session close to your maximal heart rate, once or twice a week, on top of a base of easy aerobic training. Buchheit and Laursen's review of interval programming describes the target as several minutes per session in the "red zone", above about 90% of VO2max. Heart rate, stroke volume and oxygen delivery are pushed to their limits there (see what limits VO2max).

Best way to increase VO2max: methods ranked

Rank	Method	Typical session	Strength of evidence	Recovery cost
1	Long intervals (3–8 min)	4 × 4 min at 90–95% HRmax, 3 min jog	Strong: several RCTs and meta-analyses	Moderate–high
2	Short intervals (15–30 s)	3 × 13 × 30/15 s, 15/15s, Billat 30-30	Good, especially in cyclists	Moderate
3	Sprint intervals	4–6 × 30 s all-out, long rests	Good for gains vs no training, similar to steady work	High per minute, low total
4	Threshold training	3 × 10 min at ~85–88% HRmax	Weaker for VO2max itself	Moderate
5	Easy volume (zone 2)	45–90 min conversational	Raises VO2max in beginners, plateaus sooner	Low

Best VO2max workout: long intervals at 90–95% HRmax

Long intervals have the deepest evidence base. In Helgerud et al. (2007), moderately trained men did one of four programmes matched for total work, three times a week for eight weeks. The 4×4 group raised VO2max by 7.2% and the 15/15 group by 5.5%, while long slow running and threshold running produced no significant change. Stroke volume rose by about 10% after interval training.

The Bacon et al. (2013) meta-analysis of 37 interval studies found an average increase of 0.51 L/min in VO2max, and a subset with longer intervals showed larger rises of about 0.8 to 0.9 L/min, with every participant responding. The Wen et al. (2019) meta-analysis of 53 randomised trials agreed: intervals of 2 minutes or more, at least 15 minutes of hard work per session and programmes of 4 to 12 weeks gave the largest effects, and only those formats beat moderate continuous training.

Rep length matters, but so does total time. In Seiler et al. (2013), trained cyclists who did 4 × 8 minutes at about 90% of peak heart rate improved more than those doing 4 × 4 minutes at about 94%, despite lower perceived effort. More minutes near the top, rather than the most painful minutes, seems to be the key. Start with the Norwegian 4×4 and set intensity with the heart rate zone calculator.

Short intervals: 30/15 and 15/15

Short repeats with even shorter rests let you stay near VO2max for a long time at a lower peak strain. In Rønnestad et al. (2015), cyclists doing 30/15 intervals twice a week for 10 weeks raised VO2max by 8.7%, against 2.6% for effort-matched 4 × 5 minute intervals. On the track, Billat et al. (2000) showed that 30 s at the velocity at VO2max alternated with 30 s at half that speed kept runners at VO2max for almost 8 minutes, against under 3 minutes in a hard continuous run. A full side-by-side comparison of formats is in VO2max intervals compared.

Sprint intervals: time-efficient, not the top

All-out 20 to 30 second sprints work. The Gist et al. (2014) meta-analysis found sprint interval training raised aerobic capacity by about 3.6 ml/kg/min (around 8%), with no difference from steady endurance training. That makes sprints a strong option when time is short, but not a better one than long intervals. The original Tabata (1996) protocol, 7 to 8 × 20 s at about 170% of VO2max with 10 s rest, raised VO2max by 7 ml/kg/min in six weeks, but subjects trained five days a week, a load few people sustain.

Threshold and easy volume: the base, not the spark

Milanović et al. (2015) pooled 28 trials in healthy adults: endurance training raised VO2max by 4.9 ml/kg/min and interval training by 5.5 ml/kg/min against no exercise, a small extra benefit of 1.2 ml/kg/min for intervals. Steady training clearly works, especially for unfit beginners. But its role in a plan is to build capillaries, mitochondria and durability (zone 2 training) and to let you recover from the hard days. Threshold sessions improve the pace you can hold for an hour more than VO2max itself.

Well-trained athletes do best with both. In Stöggl and Sperlich (2014), a polarised mix of mostly easy training plus intervals raised VO2peak by 11.7% in nine weeks, more than threshold-only, high-volume-only or interval-only programmes (see 80/20 training).

Best training for VO2max by who you are

You are	Best first choice	Weekly hard sessions	Notes
Beginner or returning	Easy volume, then 4 × 3 min at RPE 8	0–1 for 4–6 weeks, then 1	Gains come quickly from any training
Recreational runner	4×4 or 5 × 3 min at 3k–5k pace	1–2	Pace targets from the running calculator
Cyclist or triathlete	30/15 short intervals, 4 × 8 min	2 in a block	Rønnestad data are from cyclists
Older adult	4×4 walking uphill or on a bike	1–2	Generation 100 used 2 sessions a week at about 90% peak HR
Short on time	10 × 1 min or 4–6 × 30 s sprints	2–3 short sessions	See exercise snacks
Well-trained athlete	Long reps of 6–8 min plus short intervals	2 in a 4–8 week block	Needs more total volume to keep improving

Older adults respond well to intervals: in the Generation 100 trial, people aged 70 to 77 trained twice weekly at about 90% of peak heart rate for five years (more in HIIT for older adults). How much you gain also depends on genes and dose; see VO2max trainability.

Putting it together

1. Build 4 to 6 weeks of easy, consistent training.
2. Add one long-interval session a week, then a second in a focused block. Follow the 8-week VO2max training block.
3. Space hard days 48 to 72 hours apart: see how often to do VO2max workouts.
4. Retest after 6 to 8 weeks with the VO2max calculator and browse more running guides on VO2max for running.

Safety: if you have heart disease, high blood pressure, symptoms such as chest pain, or have been inactive for a long time, get medical clearance before hard intervals and build up from moderate exercise first.

Sources

• Helgerud J, et al. Aerobic high-intensity intervals improve VO2max more than moderate training. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2007.
• Bacon AP, Carter RE, Ogle EA, Joyner MJ. VO2max trainability and high intensity interval training in humans: a meta-analysis. PLoS One, 2013.
• Wen D, et al. Effects of different protocols of high intensity interval training for VO2max improvements in adults: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. J Sci Med Sport, 2019.
• Milanović Z, Sporiš G, Weston M. Effectiveness of high-intensity interval training (HIT) and continuous endurance training for VO2max improvements: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. Sports Med, 2015.
• Seiler S, et al. Adaptations to aerobic interval training: interactive effects of exercise intensity and total work duration. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2013.
• Rønnestad BR, et al. Short intervals induce superior training adaptations compared with long intervals in cyclists: an effort-matched approach. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2015.
• Billat VL, et al. Intermittent runs at the velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake enables subjects to remain at maximal oxygen uptake for a longer time than intense but submaximal runs. Eur J Appl Physiol, 2000.
• Gist NH, et al. Sprint interval training effects on aerobic capacity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med, 2014.
• Tabata I, et al. Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high-intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2max. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1996.
• Stöggl T, Sperlich B. Polarized training has greater impact on key endurance variables than threshold, high intensity, or high volume training. Front Physiol, 2014.
• Buchheit M, Laursen PB. High-intensity interval training, solutions to the programming puzzle. Part I: cardiopulmonary emphasis. Sports Med, 2013.
• Stensvold D, et al. Effect of exercise training for five years on all cause mortality in older adults: the Generation 100 study. BMJ, 2020.